Ligninsulfonic acid traces its roots to the early days of the wood pulp and paper industries. Mills in Europe started extracting it as a byproduct during sulfite pulping of wood. What once seemed like industrial waste has since gained recognition for its unique chemistry and versatile function. Researchers in the twentieth century began experimenting with ligninsulfonic acid, noticing its ability to disperse, bind, and chelate. Slowly, industries moved from discarding this substance to setting aside resources for its recovery and refinement. My own experience working in a bioprocessing research lab revealed warehouses full of barrels marked as ligninsulfonates. Older technicians would recall a time when disposal costs drove innovations for usage, spurring the first applications in dust control and concrete. Scraps from yesterday's pulping have turned into active agents in today’s composites and dyes.
Most folks don’t see ligninsulfonic acid in grocery aisles, yet it plays a behind-the-scenes role in many products. It emerges as viscous brown liquids or dry soluble powders, both crafted to integrate easily into mixtures. Manufacturers tap it for its strong dispersing power and its ability to bind particles, adding it to ceramics, dyes, and construction materials. Even in agriculture, ligninsulfonic acid plays a part—farmers rely on its chelating abilities to stabilize micronutrients in the soil, helping crops absorb what they need. In the lab, I saw it help keep pigments suspended and ensure even spreading of fertilizers. Its reach across so many sectors comes from steady improvements driven by customer feedback and industrial needs.
Folks want to know what ligninsulfonic acid really is—a dark, amorphous material, often carrying a faint burnt sugar smell from its woody origins. At room temperature, it can flow like syrup or crumble into grains, depending on processing. Solubility in water runs high, which enables its use in liquid applications. Chemically, sulfonic acid groups hang off the complex lignin backbone, giving ligninsulfonic acid a distinct negative charge. This feature attracts water and binds to positively charged particles—a truth evident every time I watched a slurry thicken or disperse in the lab. The molecular structure, tangled and variable, makes standardization a challenge but also enables companies to tweak production for specific end uses. Acidic pH and relatively low toxicity lead to safe handling, compared to many synthetic dispersants.
Producers label ligninsulfonic acid by purity, molecular weight, pH range, and sulfonate content. A freight container labeled with “sodium ligninsulfonate, 55% solids” tells a buyer exactly how concentrated a solution they’re receiving and what adjustment might be needed for a mix. Technical data sheets detail not only the content of sulfonate groups, but also ash, calcium, other metals, and moisture. Ligninsulfonic acid sometimes carries a code for suitability, such as food- or feed-grade, reflecting screening for heavy metals or biocides. The paper and construction business often seek additives matching recognized standards, and manufacturers respond with tight quality control—bringing batch-to-batch consistency. The right documentation ensures safe import, storage, and final product registration.
Chemical engineers extract ligninsulfonic acid during the sulfite pulping of wood. Here, chopped wood chips mix with sulfurous acid and a base—commonly calcium, sodium, or magnesium solutions. The mixture cooks under pressure, pulling lignin from plant cell walls and attaching sulfonic groups in the process. The resulting spent liquor contains the prized acid, which companies recover through filtration, neutralization, and evaporation. On tours of older mills, I watched workers test for the right color and viscosity, knowing it reflected a successful extraction. Once separated from sugars and other byproducts, the liquid undergoes further purification if necessary. Some facilities dry the material for easier handling, while others offer custom-blended solutions tailored for target industries.
Ligninsulfonic acid brims with reactive sites, thanks to its aromatic structure and abundant hydroxyl groups. Companies modify the base acid to create derivatives that fit niche roles. Sulfonation and carboxylation, for instance, boost water solubility or tweak charge density. In the lab, I worked on oxidative modifications to break up larger molecules—sharpening dispersant power for tough-to-handle pigments. Companies might also cross-link or graft polymer chains onto the molecule, making it more temperature or pH resistant. Other reactions introduce additional metal ions or adjust the balance between acid form and various salt forms. Each modification pushes ligninsulfonic acid closer to a customized, value-added solution, giving industrial chemists tools that beat out generic alternatives.
Ligninsulfonic acid dodges easy naming, collecting various titles across different regions and use cases. Industry buyers recognize it as lignosulfonic acid, sulfonated lignin, or sometimes simply as “lignosulfonate” in casual conversation. Marketing arms craft distinct trademarks; companies like to give their blend a sense of identity. Forms like sodium, calcium, or magnesium ligninsulfonate refer to the main accompanying ion in the salt. Occasionally, product labels show abbreviations such as LS, SLS, or MLS, reflecting the form and processing history. Anyone scanning safety data sheets or regulatory forms learns to watch for the many names making up its identity—cross-referencing to avoid confusion.
Safe handling of ligninsulfonic acid rests on clear labeling and adherence to accepted workplace protocols. Its natural origin means low acute toxicity, though high dust levels in processing zones sometimes prompt respiratory protection. Regular inspections flag storage tanks and pipelines letting loose even minimal leaks, since large spills darken water and disrupt soil. Health and safety documents call for gloves and goggles when transferring liquid grades. Compared to many petrochemical dispersants, ligninsulfonic acid leans eco-friendly, with quick biodegradation and low bioaccumulation in the environment. Most countries regulate usage in feed, food, and water, posting limits on heavy metals or formaldehyde residues. Staff receive real-world training on spill clean-up and first aid—no one wants sticky brown residue outside the plant floor.
Ligninsulfonic acid touches industries few would suspect. Its historical role in concrete production lives on, reducing water demand and boosting workability of cement mixes; jobsite foremen know the difference it makes on a hot day. In animal feed, it acts as a pellet binder, helping growers keep feed uniform and dust-free. Dye manufacturers use it to evenly distribute colorants in textiles, lowering costs and boosting fastness. Even in oil drilling, fluid engineers know it helps control viscosity and prevents tool sticking. In my years working with agricultural trial setups, ligninsulfonic acid consistently steadied micronutrient solutions and made chemical delivery more predictable. It moves into new arenas, such as battery production or bioplastic composites—showing flexibility and adapting to what modern manufacturers need.
Research into ligninsulfonic acid hasn’t lost steam, thanks to ongoing demand for safer, greener chemistries. Academics and company scientists crowd around bench trials testing new modifications, speeding up reactions, and checking performance in everything from detergents to soil remediation agents. I’ve read papers on its role in controlled-release fertilizers or as a platform for engineered nanoparticles. Companies invest in separating ligninsulfonic acid into fractions with consistent molecular weight, pursuing niche markets with strict requirements. University and industry partnerships push the boundaries, looking for routes that simplify purification or valorize the non-sulfonated lignin stream. Computational modeling tools arrive to help predict interactions with pollutants and additives—granting fresh insight into age-old processes.
Extensive studies focus on how ligninsulfonic acid moves through soil and water, looking for any threat to humans or wildlife. I’ve seen environmental monitoring reports confirming low acute oral and skin toxicity in lab animals. Studies reveal that ligninsulfonic acid rarely triggers allergic reactions and often breaks down quickly outside sealed systems. Regulatory agencies still want reassurance: strict monitoring targets heavy metals that might ride along from wood raw materials or processing agents. Teams test for chronic effects and keep a watchful eye on the build-up in aquatic environments downstream of manufacturing plants. Properly managed, ligninsulfonic acid fits into the drive for lower-risk, more sustainable chemistry.
Ligninsulfonic acid stands at a promising crossroads. Efforts to push green chemistry further pull this material out of obscurity and into the spotlight. Biorefineries, eager to use every molecule from the forest, turn what was once a waste stream into a feedstock for bio-based products. Car makers, electronics manufacturers, and energy storage researchers want composites and binders with low embodied carbon, and ligninsulfonic acid answers that call. I see a day when every wood mill runs dual lines: one producing classic pulp, the other refining advanced lignin derivatives. Companies experiment with biodegradable plastics and carbon sequestration, offering real climate benefits. Ligninsulfonic acid, with roots deep in industrial history and branches reaching for tomorrow, shapes up as a central material for a world seeking cleaner, smarter solutions.
Ligninsulfonic acid often gets overlooked, but plenty of things in daily life trace back to it. This compound comes from wood, usually as a byproduct of making paper. Anyone who’s set foot in a pulp and paper mill catches the distinctive smell. What gets left behind after turning wood into paper turns out to hold real value in agriculture, construction, and even food processing.
Farmers grew tired of soils that just weren’t giving enough or wouldn’t hold nutrients. Ligninsulfonic acid steps in as a chelating agent, binding with micronutrients so plants actually get to use them. It keeps iron and zinc from getting stuck in the dirt. Applying fertilizers that include this acid translates to healthier crops, especially in tricky soils with high pH. In my own stint working on a Midwest farm, we switched from regular additives to those containing ligninsulfonates and started seeing greener, sturdier crops pretty quickly.
Pouring concrete isn’t only about gravel and cement. Getting that mix just right means adding chemicals that help keep things flowing before it sets. Ligninsulfonic acid works as a plasticizer. It keeps cement mixes workable longer and lets builders use less water, strengthening the finished product. Construction teams trust it because it keeps concrete from losing strength to excess moisture. The final result is tougher, more durable sidewalks and buildings. It saves both money and effort—not to mention fewer repairs down the line.
Head out to rural roads in dry country and you find dust clouds trailing every truck. Road builders apply ligninsulfonic acid to gravel roads, keeping the dust down. It binds tiny particles together, so they stay on the ground instead of floating off with the next gust of wind. Transportation departments use it to improve air quality and keep the roads safer. I drove through Montana last summer and could spot roads treated with it—they kept dust at bay better than untreated stretches.
Back in the paper plant, waste turns out to matter. Instead of dumping everything, ligninsulfonic acid gets recovered and used as a dispersant in paper production. It keeps particles separate, making paper smoother and more consistent. It goes beyond that though; textile factories add it during dyeing, so colors penetrate cloth more evenly.
Nobody wants clumps in powdered drinks or foods. Ligninsulfonic acid finds its way here, too. Food processors trust it for dispersing powders into liquids, keeping textures appealing. It doesn’t show up on labels the way ascorbic acid or salt do, but it does help keep food looking and tasting right.
Like a lot of chemicals, sourcing impacts both people and the environment. Most ligninsulfonic acid comes from trees, so sustainable forestry matters. Some worry about residues in food or runoff after road applications. Giving preference to companies using certified sustainable wood helps. Continued investment in purification also counts—filtered products reduce risks for crops, water, and the food supply. As more industries hunt for greener solutions, finding better ways to recover and use wood byproducts will play an even bigger role in keeping costs down and reducing waste.
Ligninsulfonic acid comes from wood—more specifically, from the pulping process that turns wood into paper. People have been using byproducts from the lumber industry for generations now, aiming to squeeze as much value from trees as possible. Ligninsulfonic acid, with its roots in plant matter, helps support agriculture, concrete manufacturing, and even water treatment. Some believe its plant-based origin makes it automatically safe for the environment. The story in practice is more complicated.
Ligninsulfonic acid belongs to a group of sulfonated lignins, which help materials mix and flow by acting as dispersants. They break up clumps, stop things from sticking together, and carry unwanted metals or residues away. Relying on a natural backbone doesn’t guarantee it leaves no mark; it’s what happens after it leaves the factory that matters.
Studies on its environmental impact keep showing roughly the same story: compared to many synthetic additives, ligninsulfonic acid breaks down more easily. Fungi and soil bacteria chew it up, and it doesn’t build up in plants or animals the way many stubborn petrochemical products do. European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) assessments back this up, with regulatory agencies finding a low potential for bioaccumulation.
The acid isn’t acutely toxic to most fish or insects in studies that compare it against other dispersants. That said, too much of anything creates problems. Heavy spills sometimes lower the amount of oxygen in water, which can stress or kill aquatic life. Discharges from paper mills in the past have caused murky, low-oxygen water in pockets near the outfall pipes, not just from the ligninsulfonic acid but from the total stew of leftover chemicals. Responsible handling and proper wastewater treatment make a difference.
Anyone living near a pulp or paper mill remembers how strong those smells get when effluent isn’t treated right. In early careers, plenty of folks—myself included—have seen small creeks with foam or brownish color from lignin residues. Over the last few decades, treatment has improved, especially in countries with strict discharge standards. These days, environmental release looks a lot better than the mess seen in the seventies and eighties.
We can’t ignore the big picture: paper manufacturing itself has a footprint. Even with plant-based acid in the mix, water use and chemical runoff take thoughtful controls. Farms and factories using ligninsulfonic acid must keep waste streams closed and filtered, so what reaches rivers or fields doesn’t tip the balance.
Focusing on practical steps helps. Mills can capture spent liquors containing ligninsulfonic acid for reuse in other industries, cutting waste and reducing the need for fossil-based dispersants. More rigorous water treatment limits the reach of lignin-related substances in natural waterways. Farmers and manufacturers are watching out for buildup in soil or water, choosing application rates that support plant growth without sending excess runoff downstream.
Independent research and transparency in reporting keep companies accountable. Making use of open data and letting community groups monitor local waters ensures that technology and oversight keep pace with production. As demand grows for more sustainable products, suppliers who document and share environmental performance build trust with both businesses and neighbors.
Ligninsulfonic acid looks safer than many older industrial chemicals, but it doesn’t mean no precautions are needed. Good practices—responsible sourcing, closed-loop processing, modern treatment plants—keep lignin-based products from becoming an environmental burden.
Anyone who’s been around pulp and paper mills knows the giant volumes of waste that come out the other end. Ligninsulfonic acid steps in as a byproduct with a serious purpose. It helps keep pulp from sticking together during the paper-making process; that slickness makes the operations more efficient and helps boost output. The pulping industry leans on ligninsulfonic acid to stabilize chemicals in the wet end, so the fibers stay separated for smooth, strong paper.
Some decades back, nobody cared much for ligninsulfonic acid—much of it landed in wastewater. Process engineers now recover it for on-site uses or sell it to companies in countless other sectors looking for eco-friendlier additives.
Anyone working construction has heard about additives that help concrete flow and cure right. Ligninsulfonic acid is a key plasticizer in ready-mix concrete. This chemical lets contractors use less water in each batch, giving finished concrete stronger compressive qualities. It also lets those giant trucks pour even on hot days or across long distances before it sets.
That kind of boost matters for both safety and cost. A more workable concrete mix means less manual labor with the shovel or trowel and fewer cracks down the road. For jobs under tight deadlines or in tough terrain, this chemical helps keep crews moving and projects on schedule.
Folks in agriculture see ligninsulfonic acid show up under the label of soil amendment and as a chelating agent in liquid fertilizers. Plants need minerals like iron and zinc, but those minerals often bind up in soil or wash away with rainwater. Ligninsulfonic acid wraps around micronutrients, keeping them available longer for plant roots to absorb. This method means growers see a better return on fertilizer dollars and healthier crops at harvest.
For organic farmers, ligninsulfonic acid lines up with standards for low-toxicity and sustainability. As more agricultural operations try to cut their reliance on harsh chemicals, people look to resources like this that come from renewable wood.
Nobody likes dust, especially at mining sites, unpaved roads, or warehouses. Ligninsulfonic acid tackles dust control by binding loose particles together. When sprayed across surfaces, it grips dirt to keep it from blowing around, making life safer and more manageable for both equipment operators and neighbors downwind. Some cleaning operations add it as a dispersant—breaking up greasy or stubborn materials, improving the job done by lower-impact detergents, and reducing the need for more aggressive chemicals.
Ligninsulfonic acid lands on the radar for anyone interested in cleaner, more circular processes. More companies want to shift from raw petrochemicals to plant-based alternatives. But like any resource that depends on consistent supply and quality, industries watch for feedstock changes and price swings. Environmental standards get stricter every year; new research teams work to tweak extraction processes and purify ligninsulfonic acid for higher-tech uses, such as in new biodegradable plastics or as feedstock for specialty chemicals.
The bottom line—ligninsulfonic acid packs value where efficiency and sustainability meet. By recovering and refining what used to be a waste stream, plants and manufacturers can cut costs, protect workers, and reduce their footprint all at once. People on the front lines—farmers, engineers, plant managers—stand to gain when these smart solutions move from research to standard practice.
Ligninsulfonic acid shows up in many industries, from construction to animal feed. My experience working in a chemical warehouse taught me to respect materials like this—not just for what they offer, but for what happens if they’re ignored or misunderstood. Built from wood pulp and often appearing as a brown, syrupy liquid, this compound can react to conditions in the wrong storage environment. Small slips can trigger big problems.
This acid picks up moisture quickly, so leaving it exposed isn’t a smart move. Pails or drums should always carry tight seals, and keeping them out of sunlight helps preserve quality. Heat brings lumps, changes the texture, and can trigger chemical shifts you don’t want. The spot best suited for these containers stays cool and dry—think a well-ventilated storeroom, elevated from concrete floors. Placing the drums on wooden pallets keeps condensation from creeping up, staving off rust on metal drums and sludgy buildup inside.
During one long shift, I watched a coworker spill a small amount near a forklift bay. The slick surface left by ligninsulfonic acid invited slips—no one laughed then. Protective gloves and eye protection matter. A splash in the eye will sting, and the sticky residue clings hard to skin. Industry guidance recommends work clothing resistant to mild acid. Showers and eye-wash stations sit near storage areas for a reason.
The acid can cause harm if it hits drains or groundwater. Dedicated secondary containment platforms—those leak-proof trays under barrels—shrug off minor leaks that might otherwise turn into headaches with environmental regulators or, worse, the factory neighbors. One step I’ve learned to never skip is clear, bold labeling. Mistaking ligninsulfonic acid for harmless syrup creates confusion and costs. Proper signs warn, “Corrosive—Avoid Contact.” A safety data sheet, left in an obvious spot, gives everyone a fighting chance if something does go sideways.
Early in my career, I tried tackling a spill with basic absorbent pads—the result didn’t come close to stopping the mess. Neutralizing agents built for acids give much better results. Spills larger than a small smear need trained personnel and proper cleanup equipment: absorbent material designed for acids, polyethylene scoops, and well-fitted gloves. After cleaning, washing down the area with water lowers risks. Leaving a residue means catching slick boots, ruined flooring, or future chemical reactions.
Long-term storage brings its own challenges. I’ve watched batches stored for more than a year in sealed containers start to settle. Rolling the drum every few weeks helps, redistributing any settled solids. Any batch showing signs of spoilage—like odd smells or unusual color—is better off flagged before use. Expired product can jam up equipment and lower performance in finished goods.
Success often comes from the basics—steady training, clear instructions, and regular inspection. Designated storage spaces separated from other chemical types support a healthy, safe workplace. Training sessions, run twice yearly in our facility, meant nobody forgot the right way to move and store the drums. Digital inventory tracking cuts down on lost containers or mismatched dates. Group chats keep crews up-to-date, and a simple checklist before every shift builds habits that last. In my experience, these steps not only keep people safe, but boost product reliability and peace of mind every single shift.
Ligninsulfonic acid comes straight from wood—mostly the byproduct of processing in the pulp and paper world. Looking at it, you usually see a brownish or yellowish powder or syrupy liquid. It often smells a bit woody and earthy. It dissolves easily in water, making dark, viscous solutions that sometimes foam up if you shake or stir too much. Unlike a lot of standard chemicals, you won’t see a single melting point because it doesn’t behave like a pure substance. Ligninsulfonic acid is a mix: complex, bulky, tough to pin down perfectly. Most of what you handle is not pure but a bundle of related molecules tied together by a shared origin in wood.
Chemistry-wise, the backbone is built from aromatic rings—these six-carbon structures stitched together, borrowed from the natural lignin in wood. Rip these open during sulfite pulping, and you end up with lots of sulfonic acid groups (-SO3H) dangling off the main carbon structure. That’s the “sulfonic” part. It brings a clear acid character. Water grabs on to ligninsulfonic acid easily, and those sulfonic groups pull in sodium, calcium, or other metal ions. These ions get paired with the acid groups in commercial products, so you end up with 'lignosulfonates'—but at heart, it’s the acid groups that run the show.
Those acid groups do more than make it acidic. Ligninsulfonic acid can grab metals, reacting with ions from water or soil to create stable complexes. This gets put to use in water treatment, as a dispersing agent, and even in concrete, where it breaks up clumps and lets everything flow. Because of its size—these are big molecules, thousands of times larger than a water molecule—it grabs on to stuff, sticks to surfaces, and won’t evaporate or disappear quickly.
In factories and labs, this material feels sticky. It’s heavy, with bulk density sitting around 0.5 to 0.8 g/cm3 in powder form, depending on how wet it is. It absorbs water from the air, so storing it dry is key unless you want a gooey mess. The solution’s pH usually falls in the acidic range, thanks to those sulfonic acid groups—often around 2 to 3 for more purified samples. Drying it out is slow work, since water clings tight.
As a plant-based molecule, it’s never the same from batch to batch. Wood species, processing details, temperature—all of these change the average molecular weight and how many sulfonic groups end up on each molecule. This matters in agriculture, construction, and chemical manufacturing. Folks who use this stuff always keep an eye on how their batch behaves, because performance can swing with source and process tweaks.
Handling ligninsulfonic acid isn’t just about knowing its makeup. The sticky nature and tendency to pull in moisture mean folks need smart storage and regular checks. Bulk users look for ways to minimize dust and clumping, which can slow down mixing and plug up machinery. In my time shadowing a concrete production facility, clogged lines from damp ligninsulfonic acid led to costly delays and cleanup. Improved packaging—lined bags, strong seals—made life easier and cut down on surprise messes.
People also watch for environmental safety. Ligninsulfonic acid usually breaks down without trouble, but impurities can build up, especially if recycled. Careful screening, sourcing from trusted suppliers, and regular lab analysis can keep things on track. Upgrading filtration systems in production lines helps clean up runoff, protecting soil and water.
Ligninsulfonic acid’s strange mix of big-molecule strength, water-loving acid groups, and gripping stickiness wins it a place in dozens of industries. Getting the handling right and watching batch quality keeps problems small and the benefits big.
| Names | |
| Preferred IUPAC name | Benzenesulfonic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy- |
| Other names |
Lignosulfonic acid Lignin, sulfonated Sulfonated lignin Lignosulfonate Lignin sulfonate |
| Pronunciation | /lɪɡˌnaɪn.sʌlˈfɒn.ɪk ˈæs.ɪd/ |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number | 8061-01-4 |
| Beilstein Reference | 1761812 |
| ChEBI | CHEBI:5357 |
| ChEMBL | CHEMBL1207035 |
| ChemSpider | 13923 |
| DrugBank | DB11106 |
| ECHA InfoCard | ECHA InfoCard: 100.011.786 |
| EC Number | 232-165-2 |
| Gmelin Reference | 77865 |
| KEGG | C01759 |
| MeSH | D008083 |
| PubChem CID | 24866321 |
| RTECS number | OJ5950000 |
| UNII | F0Z16A4H42 |
| UN number | UN2586 |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | CompTox Dashboard (EPA) of product 'Ligninsulfonic Acid' is: DTXSID5025736 |
| Properties | |
| Chemical formula | C20H24O10S2 |
| Molar mass | 534.5 g/mol |
| Appearance | Brownish-yellow powder |
| Odor | Slight sulfurous odor |
| Density | 0.5-0.6 g/cm³ |
| Solubility in water | Soluble |
| log P | -2.7 |
| Vapor pressure | Negligible |
| Acidity (pKa) | ~2.5 |
| Basicity (pKb) | 10.1 |
| Magnetic susceptibility (χ) | Diamagnetic |
| Refractive index (nD) | 1.485 |
| Viscosity | Viscosity: 18-25 mPa.s |
| Dipole moment | 2.32 D |
| Thermochemistry | |
| Std molar entropy (S⦵298) | 218 J·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹ |
| Std enthalpy of combustion (ΔcH⦵298) | -6025 kJ/mol |
| Pharmacology | |
| ATC code | V03AB33 |
| Hazards | |
| GHS labelling | Warning,Exclamation Mark |
| Pictograms | GHS07,GHS08 |
| Signal word | Warning |
| Hazard statements | Harmful if swallowed. Causes serious eye irritation. |
| Precautionary statements | Precautionary statements: "P264, P280, P305+P351+P338, P337+P313, P301+P312, P330 |
| NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | 2-1-0 |
| Flash point | 82 °C |
| Autoignition temperature | 480 °C (896 °F; 753 K) |
| Lethal dose or concentration | LD50 oral rat 5000 mg/kg |
| LD50 (median dose) | LD50 (median dose): >5,000 mg/kg (rat, oral) |
| NIOSH | WE2850000 |
| PEL (Permissible) | 10 mg/m3 |
| REL (Recommended) | REL (Recommended): 5 mg/m3 |
| IDLH (Immediate danger) | Not established |
| Related compounds | |
| Related compounds |
Calcium lignosulfonate Sodium lignosulfonate Ammonium lignosulfonate Magnesium lignosulfonate |
